Asia & Pacific Review World of Information
October 8

UZBEKISTAN: COUNTRY PROFILE

BODY:


Historical profile

The Uzbeks are the second-largest community of Turkic people in the world. Lying between the Ferghana Basin and the Amu Darya River, the lands of modern Uzbekistan were the cradle of Central Asian civilisation until overcome by Mongol Tatar horsemen in the first century. The Mongol leader, Timur, built up a vast Central Asian empire stretching from northern India to Syria from the fourteenth century. The decline of Timur's empire saw the rise of the nomadic Uzbeks, who by the mid-nineteenth century had established three khanates in Bukhara, Khiva and Kokand.

1868-1873 The three khanates fell to the Russians.

1917 The peoples of Central Asia were given the right of self- determination by Lenin after the October revolution. 1920s The Soviet nationalities policy, under the direction of Stalin, saw Soviet rule enforced by Red Army troops who put down indigenous revolts throughout Central Asia after the Russian civil war.

1924 Uzbekistan was given Union Republic status in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).

1944 The Soviet leader, Stalin, deported 160,000 Meskhetian Turks from Georgia to Uzbekistan.

1950-80 Cotton production was boosted by the government undertaking major irrigation projects on Uzbekistan's rivers and lakes. The country's water levels were drastically reduced.

1984 Thousands of Uzbek officials were arrested on corruption charges over the 'cotton affair' when invented crop yields saw millions of roubles go missing.

1989 and 1990 Uzbekistan was subject to ethnic violence, particularly in the ethnically diverse Ferghana Valley.

1991 Independence from the USSR was declared in August and Uzbekistan joined the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). The first presidential election, held in December, was won by the chairman of the Supreme Soviet, Islam Karimov.

1995 A referendum in March extended President Karimov's term of office until the year 2000.

2000 In January, President Islam Karimov was re-elected with 91.9 per cent of the vote against 4.1 per cent for his opponent, Abdulhasiz Dzhalalov. Purportedly more than 90 per cent of the 12.7 million eligible voters cast votes, but the actual number is thought to have been far lower. The Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) accused the government of failing to give voters a real choice in presidential candidates.

2001 Uzbekistan allowed US troops to be based on its soil and the use of its airspace for the US-led military operation in Afghanistan.

2002 In January, 91 per cent of Uzbekistan's citizens voted in favour of a possible two-year extension of Karimov's term in office and to increase the country's parliament from a one-chamber legislature to two.

Political structure

Uzbekistan has one of the most stable polity of all the countries of the former Soviet Union. The government of President Karimov keeps a firm hold of all branches of government and civil society. Consequently, the political environment is heavily centralised around the personality of the president and the dangers of political as well as economic stagnation are great.

Constitution

The constitution was adopted in December 1992. It guarantees respect for all citizens, regardless of language, custom or tradition, and forbids any group or individual to exercise power on behalf of the people of Uzbekistan except for the elected president and legislature. The creation of a state ideology and censorship of the media are also contrary to the constitution.

The autonomous region of Karakalpakstan has its own constitution, but is subject to the laws of Uzbekistan. Karakalpakstan has the right to withdraw from Uzbekistan depending it has support via a referendum.

On 8 December 1992, Uzbekistan became the second Central Asian state to adopt a post-independence constitution. The already considerable powers of the president were increased, giving him the right to appoint regional governors who report directly to him. The constitution also included guarantees of freedom, of conscience and of travel, and a statement that the country should be a secular democracy. President Karimov has pointed to the Turkish state as his country's model.

Form of state: Secular, (theoretically) democratic and presidential republic.

The executive

The president is head of state and holds supreme executive power. He is directly elected for a five-year term (and for a maximum of two consecutive terms).

The president appoints the prime minister and ministers, subject to confirmation by the legislature, appoints the judges of the lower courts and the governors of the regions.

The Cabinet of Ministers is the government of the country; it is subordinate to the president.

A January 2002 referendum approved a possible two-year extension of the president's term which would otherwise expire in 2005.

National legislature

The highest legislative body is the Oly Majlis (Supreme Assembly) comprising 250 deputies, elected for a five-year term in territorial constituencies. The Oly Majlis may be dissolved by the president by agreement with the Constitutional Court.

A January 2002 referendum approved increasing the country's parliament from a one-chamber legislature to two.

Legal system

Judicial power is nominally independent of government, but as the judges of the higher courts are selected from among lower court judges, who are themselves appointed by the president, there is in practice significant political control over the system.

The three highest courts are the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court and the High Commercial Court. The first rules on the validity of legislation and on disputes between the government of Uzbekistan and the Karakalpakstan autonomous region. The second is the highest court of appeal for criminal and civil cases initiated in the lower courts. The third is the highest court of arbitration for civil cases initiated in the lower courts.

Last elections: 5/19 December 1999 (parliamentary); 9 January 2000 (presidential).

Next elections: 2004 (parliamentary); 2005 (presidential)

Political parties

In 1997 legislation came into force prohibiting parties based on ethnic or religious lines, or those advocating war or subversion of the constitutional order.

Ruling party

Coalition government led by Chalk Demokratik Partijasi (CDP) (Democratic People's Party)

Main opposition party

All parties in the Supreme Assembly are loyal to the president. The banned O'zbekiston Erk Demokratik Partiyasi (OEDP) (Erk Democratic Party) is considered to be the main opposition party to the Karimov regime.

Population: 26.40 million (2000)

The rate of population growth was 1.7 per cent per annum in the period 1995-2000 and is projected to rise 1.4 per cent per annum 1998-2015.

Population density: 60 inhabitants per square km (2000). Urban population: 37 per cent.

Ethnic make-up

Uzbek (72 per cent), Russian (8 per cent), Tajik (7 per cent), Kazakh (4 per cent), others (9 per cent ). There is a Korean minority estimated at 7 per cent. The Uzbeks are the second most numerous Turkic people in the world after the Turks themselves.

Religions: Muslim (88 per cent, mostly Sunni); Christian Eastern Orthodox (9 per cent).

Education

Although Uzbekistan's overall literacy rate is high, it lags behind other former Soviet republics in most areas of social development. In 2000, the adult illiteracy rate was estimated at 6.6 per cent and 15.3 per cent for men and women respectively. Uzbekistan offers nine years of general education followed by three years of compulsory secondary specialised education. The gross primary school enrolment rate in 2000 was 100 per cent, dropping to 94 per cent at secondary level and 36 per cent at tertiary level. There are 16 universities and 42 research institutes in the country, including the state-run Tashkent Islamic University.

The government initiated the National Programme for Personnel Training in 1997, giving high priority to introducing new educational technologies and attracting international donors. The reform programme will replace existing schools and it is estimated that seven million pupils will enrol in these new schools, and in sharp contrast with the past, 90 per cent (an unprecedented amount in the New Independent States) of these pupils are expected to enrol in vocational education and training.

In 2000, the Uzbekistan government set aside special expenditure of US $ 138.5 million for upgrading equipment and facilities in secondary and tertiary institutions. This is in addition to average educational expenditure of 7.7 per cent of annual GNI (Gross National Income).

Health

Healthcare were fairly standard across the former Soviet Union, but the breakdown in trade and economic crises have brought about a severe shortage of medicines and equipment.

In 2000, life expectancy was estimated at 70 years and the infant mortality rate stood at 19 per 1,000 live births. Approximately 19 per cent of children were malnourished in the period 1993-1999. Uzbekistan shows a birth and death rate of 23 births and six deaths per 1,000 people. The fertility rate shows that 2.7 children are born per adult woman with 56 per cent of them using contraceptives. The maternal mortality ratio is estimated at 21 deaths per 100,000 live births. There are 3.3 physicians and 8.3 hospital beds typically available per 1,000 people. World Bank estimates in 2000, showed that sanitation was universal and 85 per cent of the population had access to safe water facilities.

Healthcare expenditure is equivalent to about 4 per cent of GDP, of which 3.4 per cent is public expenditure and the remaining 0.6 per cent private according to surveys between 1990 and 1998. According to a presidential decree in 1999, private healthcare institutions were exempted from tax following their establishment in order to facilitate investment in medical equipment. The government also plans to make premises and funds available for private healthcare institutions. In the public domain the decree includes a programme for the development of medical treatment centres in villages from 2001-05.

Welfare

Uzbekistan's social spending is relatively higher than most other transitional countries. Social assistance is channelled through traditional local structures using the national Malhalla foundation, which is responsible for meeting the needs of the poor. The Malhalla collects information on the claimants' needs independently of the state. Wages in the agricultural sector have tended to fall behind the national average as a result of high taxes, contributing to increased risks of civil unrest. Expenditures on the social safety net continue to account for 3.5 per cent of GDP and benefits are usually increased in line with wages rather than with official inflation.

There is a comprehensive system of benefits for sickness, disability, maternity and unemployment, as well as a combined state and private pension scheme. However, many of these payments are linked to the declining minimum wage, with the result that those depending on benefits are likely to drop below the poverty line. There are special payments to veterans of the war in Afghanistan during the Soviet era. The government also provides benefits through budget subsidies for housing maintenance and public utilities.

Main cities

Tashkent (capital, estimated population 2.5 million in 1999), Samarkand (366,000), Namangan (291,000), Andizhan (288,000), Bukhara, Nukus, Karshi.

Languages spoken

Uzbek is of Turkic origin and is the most commonly used language, although Russian remains the language of inter-ethnic communication and business. Turkish and Arabic are also spoken. English and other Western languages are increasingly common, particularly in Tashkent and other urban areas.

Official language/s: Uzbek

Media

There is state censorship of the media, and most domestic media are state-owned. The number of newspapers in Uzbekistan rose from 200 in 1991 to 700 in 2001, although their circulations remain limited. There is no competition in the media sector, because the number of private newspapers, radio and TV station is not high enough.

Press

Dailies: Several daily publications are state-owned, including the Uzbek and Russian-language newspaper Narodnoe Slovo (People's World) and the Russian-language Pravda Vostoka (Truth of the East).

Uzbekistan's first privately owned newspaper, Kommerchesky Vestnik (Commercial News) was launched in 1998. It is published daily in the Uzbek language and there are also supplements in Russian and English. Other dailies include the Russian-language Tashkentskie Kuranty, Vechernij Tashkent (evening Uzbek language newspaper) and Golos Uzbekistana (Voice of Uzbekistan). Eldik Mezgil (Demos Time), an Uzbek- language newspaper designed to promote free speech, was launched in 2000 with US support. English language publications include Good Morning and Uzbekiston Ovozi Times.

Weeklies: Weeklies include Choyhona and Uzbekistan Weekly News.

Business: Business news is carried by Business Partner Uzbekistana, Business-vestnik Vostoka (Business News of the East); English language publications include Business Partner and Business Review.

Broadcasting

State-owned channels and stations broadcast in Uzbek. There are three domestic radio stations on AM, FM and shortwave. Repeater stations broadcast daily Russian TV and radio from Moscow, Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (TRT) stations and occasional programmes in Kazakh, Tajik and Kyryz.

Economy

Following independence in 1991, Uzbekistan faced a loss of subsidies from Russia and contracting regional markets. Uzbekistan resisted the shock economic reforms of other ex-Soviet countries, following instead a more cautious restructuring approach. This has resulted in a much smaller contraction in the economy than has been experienced in other states in the region. However, diversification away from cotton and a relaxation of central control of the economy are essential if the Uzbekistani industrial sector is to compete globally and attract foreign investors.

Indeed, Uzbekistan's economic growth remains largely dependent on cotton. The agricultural sector accounts for over 30 per cent of GDP and cotton exports for 28 per cent of foreign exchange earnings. Uzbekistan has suffered from its over-reliance on cotton in recent years, experiencing a severe deterioration of its terms-of-trade due to a collapse in the cotton price on world markets and a contraction in the country's main export markets. From 1999, this resulted in gold becoming Uzbekistan's main export earner despite low international gold prices.

GDP growth has been stable and modest while official unemployment is low at 0.60 per cent (2000). However, inflation remains high at 27.2 per cent in 2001. While aggregate economic growth and unemployment may have followed a positive trend over the latter half of the 1990s and Uzbekistan's wider economic performance remains mixed, external imbalances and an increasing debt burden threaten to undermine investor confidence still further.

The government has introduced a gradual economic liberalisation programme (termed 'evolutionary reform' by President Karimov), and has pledged to privatise 'non-strategic' state-owned industries, rationalise the financial sector and attempt to attract much needed foreign investment in an effort to increase know-how and economic efficiency.

The privatisation of small enterprises is largely complete and the government has pledged to increase the pace of its medium- to large- scale privatisation programme. Companies due for privatisation include the oil and gas company Uzbekneftegaz and the telecommunications company Uzbektelecom

The government has since extended the term of the privatisation programme to 2005 and reduced the number of companies to be privatised to 162, from an original 258. However, the government's ability to find buyers will ultimately depend on the pace of economic reform and asking prices. Many analysts suspect the government has traditionally inflated the latter in order to delay the privatisation programme, a process which will expose the inefficiencies of Uzbekistan's company-base and lead to a period of politically sensitive labour-shedding.

Despite the on-going liberalisation programme, the IMF refused to provide any new support packages unless the multi-exchange rate system is abandoned and steps taken towards current account convertibility. In response, the government has announced plans to liberalise the exchange rate in mid-2002.

External trade

Uzbekistan still relies heavily on trade with former Soviet Union states, particularly Russia. Uzbekistan has signed a number of trade agreements with regional countries. It has an agreement with Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan permitting free movement of capital, goods and labour between the three countries and the co-ordination of monetary and fiscal policy.

Exports

The number of products subject to export quotas and licensing has been reduced. Export tariffs and bans are being phased out. Principal exports are cotton (approximately 27.5 per cent of 2000 total), gold and manufactures.

Main destinations: The CIS (mainly Russia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan), US, South Korea, Switzerland, UK, Germany, the Netherlands, France, Italy, Turkey.

Imports

Principal imports are food, fuel and energy, and capital goods.

Agriculture

The agricultural sector contributes 25 per cent to GDP and employs around a third of the working population. Only 9 per cent of the land is suitable for cultivation.

By the end of the first quarter of 2001, 1,807 farms were operating on a co-operative basis. Family farms dominate 99 per cent of the country's cotton field sector and 93 per cent of the corn sector. Agricultural production in the quarter surpassed the results of the same period in 2000, with output 6.7 per cent higher and exports growing by 37.4 per cent.

At the end of the 1980s, the republic had been the world's second- largest raw cotton producer with an annual harvest of around 10 million tonnes. Cotton is still the main crop but monoculture has resulted in decreasing yields from soil depletion and in a major ecological catastrophe, particularly the degradation of the Aral Sea.

Agriculture is being diversified to offset the destructive effects of cotton monoculture.

The most damaging effect has been the transformation of Uzbekistan from a net food exporter to a food importer. However, despite international appeals for food aid for over one million people who suffered failed harvests as a result of drought, in May 2001, the government agreed to sell cotton, fruit and vegetables to Russia at prices over 60 per cent lower than those on the global market in an effort to clear the country's US $ 600 million debt owed on arms sales. Despite this, the US agreed to provide Uzbekistan with US $ 20 million in credit under its Food for Peace programme to buy 50,000 tonnes of US soybeans and 37,000 tonnes of US milled rice. Delivery started in June 2001.

Industry and manufacturing

The industrial sector contributes approximately 10 per cent to GDP and employs 18 per cent of the working population.

Main industries include chemical and gas production, heavy engineering, specialising in machinery for the cotton-growing and textile industries, aircraft construction, metal works, textiles and cotton derivatives, canned foods and nitrogenised fertilisers.

Tourism

Major historic sites of Tashkent, Samarkand, Khiva and Bukhara offer potential for international tourism. Visitors to Uzbekistan totalled 272,000 in 1998.

Environment

Uzbekistan has numerous environmental problems, the most pressing being the management of water resources and the Aral Sea Basin. More than half of irrigated land is heavily salinised and eroded. Surface and underground water sources used for human consumption in parts of the country have also been polluted by industrial and communal discharges. The Aral Sea is drying up due to the overuse of water from the two main rivers which feed into it. There has also been desertification of the surrounding land.

Mining

Uzbekistan is rich in unexplored mineral deposits - its potential mineral wealth amounts to a value of US $ 3,000 billion. There are around 100 deposits of various metals including gold, silver, uranium, zinc, copper and tungsten, which need developing. The republic is the fourth- largest uranium producer in the world.

Uzbekistan is the fifth-largest gold producer in the world. Its commercial reserves are associated with open-cast mines of the Muruntau field in the Kyzylkum desert in central Uzbekistan, which have been developed by the main state gold producer Kyzylkumredmetzoloto (Navoi Integrated Mining and Metallurgical Plant) since 1967. Its annual output amounts to 55-60 tonnes, producing 70 per cent of Uzbekistan's total gold production. Foreign investment in the sector had boosted annual gold production to an estimated 83 tonnes in 1999, despite a fall in world gold prices.

The US $ 225 million Zarafshan-Newmont joint-venture between Uzbekistan and the US mining company Newmont, set up in 1995, processes about 200 million tonnes of low-grade ore, previously regarded as waste, from the Muruntau open gold pit. The project is due to end in 2012. Dzhetymtau, located in the Kyzylkum desert is estimated to hold reserves of 400 tonnes of gold and 350,000 tonnes of tungsten ores. Since 2000, Britain's Oxus Resources Corporation has been exploring and developing several areas in north-western Uzbekistan, with estimated reserves of 350 tonnes of gold. There are silver deposits in the central Kyzylkum region, which also contain gold, platinum group metals, cobalt and nickel, which can be recovered as by-products.

Uzbekistan is the only producer of enriched uranium in the former Soviet Union. All output is exported, since the country has no nuclear reactors of its own. Uzbekistan's proven uranium reserves are about 80,000 tonnes, while estimated reserves are about 178,000 tonnes. Sugraly is one of Central Asia's biggest uranium fields and holds an estimated 38,000 tonnes of uranium. Kyzylkumredmetzoloto is Uzbekistan's only uranium producer and exporter.

Uzbekistan possesses considerable reserves of lead and zinc.

Copper production in Uzbekistan averages 80,000 tonnes per year, principally from the Kalmakir open mine, with the remainder mined at the Sari Checku open pit. The ore is processed at the Almalyk concentrator. Uzbekistan produces over 100,000 tonnes per year of feldspar, about one-third of the output of the former Soviet Union. The non-ferrous metal industry includes the mining of bismuth, tungsten and molybdenum. Other natural resources include rock salt, potassium salts, anthracite, graphite, ozokerite, sulphur, quartz, limestone, gypsum, bentonites and semi-precious stones.

Hydrocarbons

Oil

Uzbekistan has estimated oil reserves of over 600 million barrels. Principal oil and gas fields include Kuanish, Shakhpakthy and Chembar. Other fields have been discovered in the Mamangan and Ferghana regions.

Uzbekistan's two oil refineries have a total refining capacity of 173,000 barrels per day (bpd) and a refining throughput of 170,000bpd.

In 2001, UzPEC - a subsidiary of Britain's Trinity Energy - received licenses to explore and develop oil fields in the Gissar and Ustyurt provinces. Other fields have had the involvement of US, Saudi and Turkish companies.

Uzbekistan is dependent on exporting its oil and gas through Russia, a dependence which allows Russia to exert considerable pressure and influence over Uzbekistan. In an attempt to decrease Russia's leverage in this area there are proposals for an alternative pipeline to transport oil and gas from the Central Asian region.

Following Western intervention in Afghanistan in October 2001, a post- Taliban Afghanistan promises some rich rewards for Uzbekistan. Uzbekistan has already signed a memorandum of understanding with Turkmenistan, Afghanistan and Pakistan to build the Central Asia Oil Pipeline (CAOP), which would transport Central Asian oil via Afghanistan to a proposed new deepwater port at Gwadar off the Pakistani coast.

Many of the largest international oil companies have avoided Uzbekistan so far, put off by high levels of bureaucracy (certainly in comparison to Kazakhstan) and worries concerning the government's economic policy. This, however, has not prevented the government from taking initial steps to privatise parts of the sector. It was announced in May 2001 that the government intends to sell off 49 per cent of shares in Uzbekneftegaz (Uzbek Oil and Gas) to foreign investors. In mid-2001, Uzbekneftegaz teamed up with the French bank BNP Paribas to co-ordinate the privatisation process. BNP Paribas has proposed a three-stage approach to Uzbekneftegaz's privatisation. The first stage, comprised of an evaluation of Uzbekneftegaz's privatisation, was completed in May 2002. The final two stages will concentrate on actually preparing the company for privatisation.

Gas

Uzbekistan is the tenth-largest natural gas producer in the world. There are substantial reserves of natural gas, 1.86 trillion cubic metres (2001). Gas production was 55.21 billion cubic metres by 2000, almost 30 per cent higher than in 1992. Major natural gas fields are in Kuanish, Shakhpakhty and Chembar.

Most natural gas has a high sulphur content and requires processing. Most gas is processed at the Mubarek processing plant, with a capacity of 29 million cubic metres per annum. The Shurtan Gas Chemical Complex opened in April 2001 with a capacity to produce over 100,000 tonnes of polyethylene and 125,000 tonnes of liquefied natural gas per year. The complex was completed in December 2000 at a cost of US $ 1 billion, financed by Uzbekneftegaz with the backing of loans from various international financial institutions, including the Japanese Bank of International Commerce (US $ 400 million) and the US Ex-Im Bank (US $ 200 million). A pipeline from Bukhara runs out through the Urals exporting natural gas to Russia, Ukraine and eastern Europe.

Coal

Uzbekistan has coal reserves of 4.47 billion tonnes and production of 3.25 million tonnes per year, although production is rapidly declining. As a result, the government has introduced a major modernisation plan. Germany's Krupp Fordertechnik was awarded a tender in early 2001 to refurbish the Angren coal mine, responsible for 80 per cent of Uzbekistan's coal production, over 10 years at a cost of US $ 162.8 million.

Energy

The energy sector is almost entirely state-controlled. Natural gas provides most of the necessary energy for local power generation facilities. Uzbekistan is the largest electricity producer among the Central Asian republics and a net exporter of electricity, supplying regional countries, such as Tajikistan. In May 2002, the Uzbekistan government signed an agreement with the interim Afghan government to supply 30MW of electricity to northern Afghanistan. Uzbekistan is part of the Central Asian power distribution system along with Kyrgyzstan, southern Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan.

Uzbekistan has 37 electric power plants with an overall capacity of over 11 million kW. There are hydroelectric power plants on the Syr Darya, Narin and Chirchik rivers, and fossil-fired power stations at Syr Darya, Tashkent, Novo-Angren, Tachiatasch and Ferghana. Hydroelectric plants produce 15 per cent of Uzbekistan's electricity and fossil-powered plants 85 per cent.

A joint venture between a German subsidiary of the Swiss-Swedish conglomerate Asea Brown Boveri (ABB) and the Uzbek Energy and Electrification Ministry services turbines, generators and other equipment at the Novo-Angren power plant. The plant has seven power units of 300MW per unit. The Navoi thermoelectric power plant (the fourth-largest in Uzbekistan) was modernised during 2001 with funds of US $ 234 million provided by the Japanese company, Mitsubishi. Five hydroelectric power plants are being constructed in 2002. The largest is the Topalang hydroelectric power station in southern Uzbekistan, which will produce 175MW of electricity annually when fully constructed.

Financial markets

Stock exchange

The Tashkent Stock Exchange opened in 1996. It houses a securities exchange, real estate traders, the national investment fund and the national securities depositary.

Banking

Uzbekistan has 34 active banks, including 10 privately owned, four joint ventures with foreign capital and one totally controlled by foreign capital (2000). Three state-owned banks, the National Bank of Uzbekistan (NBU), Aska Bank and Narodny Bank, dominate the sector.

Central bank: National Bank of Uzbekistan (NBU)

Time: GMT plus five hours

Geography

Uzbekistan is located in the heart of Central Asia. The fourth-largest republic in the former Soviet Union, Uzbekistan measures approximately 925km from north to south and 1,400km from west to east at its widest points. The republic has a short border with Afghanistan to the south, Kazakhstan lies to the north, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan to the east and south-east and Turkmenistan to the south-west.

The western region, including the Karakalpakstan oblast, marks the eastern fringe of the Turkmen desert. The Kyzylkum desert covers most of the area between Tashkent and the Aral Sea. The western reaches of the Tien Shan mountain range protrude from Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan into south-eastern Uzbekistan. The fertile Ferghana Valley runs from the north-eastern finger of Uzbekistan, east of Tashkent, across the border into Kyrgyzstan. Half of the Aral Sea lies within Uzbekistan, the other half in Kazakhstan. There are two main rivers. The Amu Darya, which enters from Afghanistan at Termez and runs along the border with Turkmenistan before turning north at Khiva and flowing into the southern end of the Aral Sea. The Syr Darya flows from the Tien Shan mountains northwards, east of Tashkent and into Kazakhstan, eventually reaching the northern end of the Aral Sea.

Climate

Uzbekistan comprises mostly desert and semi-desert, with extreme continental temperatures: the average stands at minus eight degrees Celsius (C) in January and 26 degrees C in June. Temperatures in Tashkent vary from minus one degree C in January to 29-40 degrees C or more in summer. Rainfall averages between 80 and 90mm per annum on the plains and 890 to 1,000mm per annum in the mountains.

Dress codes

Smart clothes are required for business visitors. Otherwise dress is not overly formal but modest, particularly outside Tashkent.

Entry requirements

Passports

Passports are required by all and must be valid for at least six months after the intended date of departure from Uzbekistan.

Visa

Visas are required by all foreign nationals. Transit visas issued in other CIS countries are no longer recognised.

Applications for visas should be made in advance. Visas must be stamped in each city visited by foreign nationals. Visitors should note that, as a result of violence in the Ferghana Valley, travel to the area is likely to be restricted.

Citizens of countries where no consulate of Uzbekistan exists may obtain a visa on arrival, usually upon presentation of an invitation from a government ministry or Uzbek business. Visas must be used within one month of issue.

Passengers travelling for business purposes must present an invitation from an organisation in Uzbekistan and tourists must present an invitation from a travel agency in Uzbekistan along with tourist vouchers.

The Uzbekistan Embassy in London will only issue visas for stays that have been fully pre-booked and arranged through the state company for tourism, Uzbektourism, or one of its licensees, and visitors must be met by a representative of the local agency.

Currency advice/regulations

Imported foreign currency must be declared on arrival, as re-export is only allowed within the limits of the declaration given. The import of amounts over US $ 20 million requires permission from the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations. The import and export of domestic currency is forbidden. Travellers cheques can rarely be exchanged outside the commercial areas of Tashkent. In 2000, the Uzbekistani government issued a warning against a growing circulation of counterfeit US dollars. Visitors should, therefore, avoid exchanging currency on the black market if possible.

Customs

Goods to the value of US $ 5,000 can be imported for personal use. On arrival declare all foreign currency and valuable items such as jewellery, cameras, computers etc.

Health (for visitors)

Mandatory precautions

Vaccination certificates are required for yellow fever if travelling from an infected area.

Advisable precautions

Water precautions recommended: water purification tablets may be useful or drink bottled water. It is advisable to be 'in date' for the following immunisations: polio (within 10 years), tetanus (within 10 years), typhoid fever, hepatitis 'A' (moderate risk only), tick-borne encephalitis, tuberculosis. There has been a significant increase in the number of cases of diphtheria. Anti-malarial precautions advisable. Any medicines required by the traveller should be brought into the country and it could be wise to have precautionary antibiotics if going outside major urban centres. A travel kit including a disposable syringe is a reasonable precaution. There is a risk of rabies.

A reciprocal health agreement exists with the UK for urgent medical treatment. Proof of UK residence will be required.

Hotels

Advisable to book in advance through Uzbektourism or other specialist travel agents in the West. Gratuities are illegal.

Credit cards

Credit cards are not widely accepted outside Tashkent's top hotels and restaurants.

Public holidays (2002)

Muslim holidays are based on the lunar calendar and therefore move forwards by 10-12 days each year. Actual dates of Muslim holidays may vary by 1-2 days depending on sightings of the moon.

Fixed dates

1 Jan (New Year's Day), 8 Mar (International Women's Day), 21 Mar (Navruz/First Day of Spring), 1 May (International Labour Day), 1 Sep (Independence Day), 8 Dec (Constitution Day).

Variable dates

Islamic New Year, Prophet's birthday, Eid Al-Fitr, Eid Al-Adha. Good Friday, Easter (Christian Orthodox only).

Working hours

Banking

Mon-Fri: 0800-1300, 1400-1700. Banks are generally open Saturday mornings but it is advisable to make appointments weekdays only. Banks at Tashkent airport are open only at arrival of international flights.

Business

Mon-Fri: 0800-1300, 1400-1700. Business hours generally include Saturday mornings but appointments should be made.

Government

Mon-Fri: 0800-1300, 1400-1700. Some government offices are open Saturday mornings.

Shops

Mon-Fri: 0800-2000/2100. Shops are closed for lunch for one hour at any time between 1100 and 1500.

Telecommunications

Telephone/fax

Dialling code for Tashkent, IDD access code + 998, followed by 71 for Tashkent, followed by customer number.

Local calls can be made free-of-charge from hotels.

Telecommunications are underdeveloped but improving. Australia, Israel and Japan have offered to develop satellite-based communications.

Teletas, Turkey's second largest telecommunications manufacturer, in a joint venture with the Uzbekistani company Algorithim, is installing digital public exchanges in Uzbekistan. Initial installations included a System 12 public exchange developed by Alcatel of France - which has a 39 per cent stake in Teletas - and made under licence in Turkey. Eight cities are due to receive 70,000 lines, leading to full construction of the exchange by Altel, the joint venture company.

The deal was partly financed by a US $ 25 million Turkish government aid project aimed at providing digital public exchanges in all five Turkish- speaking former Soviet republics.

Marconi Communications of the UK has also taken a 50 per cent stake in a joint venture to digitalise Tashkent's city telephone network and is also planning hardware, software and services investment in the country. Siemens AG of Germany is also involved in a contract to rebuild four of Tashkent's telephone exchanges.

Daewoo Telecoms, the South Korean telecommunications company, has a US $ 2 billion telecommunications agreement to upgrade the fixed line network and install a GSM cellular network; by the end of 2010, Daewoo Telecoms hopes to have 45,000 subscribers. There are already five other mobile communications operators in Uzbekistan, the largest of which is Uzdunrobita (an Uzbekistani-US joint venture), with 12,000 subscribers.

Postal services

Airmail and telegram services are available from each town's post office. Surface mail is slow. In Uzbek addresses, the street number should follow the name of the street.

Courier services

Few international courier companies operate in Uzbekistan. Federal Express has services in the country.

Mobile phones

There are four mobile phone networks operating in Uzbekistan: Buztel, Coscom, Uzmacom and the Daewoo Central Paging Company. Coverage in areas outside Tashkent is extremely limited.

Internet/e-mail

There are around 10 Internet hosts per 100,000 people.

Electricity supply: 220V AC.

Social customs/useful tips



Business is conducted formally. Appointments are essential and business cards are exchanged.

The giving of small gifts is widely practised, not as bribes but as social niceties. Uzbek hospitality is renowned. It may be regarded as insulting to decline an invitation to a private function. Offering basic food is considered insulting. It is polite to see a visitor off at a train station. If travelling on public transport, make sure to give up your seat to the old, parents with children and the disabled. Superstitions are taken somewhat seriously: do not give an even number of flowers, for example, as this is for funerals only; do not greet people in a doorway - this is considered unlucky.

Personal relationships are the key to doing business in Uzbekistan, with the hierarchy confined to a small group of influential families. Establishing contact within that group can be vital.

Local customs to watch out for are ram butting and wrestling, and wedding ceremonies in September which take place in the street.

Gratuities are illegal.

Alcohol is available and smoking is widespread.

Security

It is unwise to venture out on the streets alone at night. Dress inconspicuously as wealthy-looking foreigners can be a target for muggers. Identification should be carried at all times, and visitors should avoid photographing official buildings. If taking photographs in the vicinity of police or soldiers, it is best to ask their permission first.

Since 1999, there has been an increasing terrorist and kidnapping threat in the north-east of the country, especially in the Ferghana Valley and mountainous regions on the Kyrgyz and Tajik borders. Visitors should register with the Uzbek authorities before entering these areas. Outbreaks of violence can lead to strong reactions from the Uzbekistani army, including widespread roadblocks and the closure of some destinations. If stopped by police, visitors should remain calm and polite.

Getting there

Air

National airline: Ozbekiston Havo Yollari (Uzbekistan Airlines).

Main airport: Tashkent International Airport.

Tashkent airport is Central Asia's main international airport. The airport, which is being modernised and expanded, is served by a handful of airlines from Western and Eastern Europe, the Middle East and the Far East. A new passenger air terminal was constructed in early 2002. The airport is connected by bus services to most main cities in Central Asia.

Airport tax: Tashkent International Airport levies no departure tax.

Surface

There are border crossings with Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan. Note that few primary roads exist. Secondary roads, particularly in desert areas, are of poor quality. Although rail connections exist between Tashkent and Moscow and most capitals of Central Asia, services are few and slow.

Road: Many roads are in poor condition especially in desert areas such as the borders with Turkmenistan and the western borders with Kazakhstan. Visitors should note that all border crossings with Afghanistan are closed, crossings with Tajikistan are restricted and borders with Kyrgyzstan may be closed at short notice due to violence in the area.

Rail: Tashkent is linked by rail to Astana and Alma Ata in Kazakhstan, but the distances involved do not make this the most convenient means of travel

Getting about

National transport

Air: There are many cheap internal flights between cities, and these tend to be the most convenient way to travel over long distances. Tashkent, Bukhara, Samarkand and Urgench are all served by internal flights.

Road: Routes between the main cities are served by modern air- conditioned coach services which are reliable but infrequent. Regional services are irregular and often used for transporting goods and livestock.

Buses: Regular intercity buses are very cheap.

Rail: Tashkent, Samarkand and Bukhara are all connected by a modern, electrified railway. Some other routes are in varying states of disrepair, and long-distance travel by train should be avoided. If obliged to travel overnight, store valuables in the compartment under the bed or seat. Do not leave the compartment unattended and ensure that the door is secured from the inside by tying it with wire or strong cord.

Uzbekistan began a US $ 126 million rail modernisation project in July 2001, part of this being financed by a US $ 69 million EBRD loan.

City transport

Taxis: In each city there are official taxis (with sign on top) and unofficial taxis. Agree rates in advance when using the official taxis. A few dollars are sufficient for a local journey in an unofficial taxi. In Tashkent it is safer to use official taxis or hire cars.

Buses, trams & metro: A trolleybus service operates in Tashkent. The bus from the airport to the city is not recommended.

Car hire

A national licence with authorised translation or international driving permit is required.

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